Uncertainty Reduction Theory Of Health Communication

Uncertainty Reduction Theory in Health Communication Interpersonal communication comprises a basic element of healthcare service. It occurs through the processes of symbolic interaction, social penetration, and uncertainty reduction between two or more individuals. In medical practice, these fundamental components intertwine toward meeting a patient’s physical, psychological, and social needs. Thus, effective utilization of communication theories can dramatically improve quality of patient-care services and potentially reduce costs in healthcare and insurance. This paper explores one of theories in interpersonal communication — Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) — and seeks ways to apply URT for the advancement of health communication. All human relationships pose communication challenges. Attempting to resolve the key cognitive and behavioral obstacles with initial encounters, Professor Charles Burger and a colleague, Richard Calabrese, founded URT in 1975. The theory’s key principle posits that â€Å"†¦during initial interactions, our lack of knowledge about another person causes us to be uneasy or uncomfortable†¦therefore†¦[we seek] to find ways to reduce†¦uncertainty [and increase predictability].† Burger proposes three phases to articulate the URT hypothesis: Initial, Personal, and Exit in the expansion of interpersonal interaction. During the Initial phase, the interactants share very limited information, regulated strictly by social norms. The Personal Phase, the secondShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of the Uncertainty Reduction Theory on Interpersonal Communication1521 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis of the Uncertainty Reduction theory on interpersonal communication Through this paper I will conduct an analysis of the uncertainty reduction theory and will then apply it to my own experience here in Colorado university. This theory has been subject to many articles and studies in the communication and social departments. Indeed, studying this theory can help us understanding human relations in interpersonal communication. Each of us has been one day confronted to uncertainty, whereas inRead MoreUncertainty Reduction Theory Essay4674 Words   |  19 Pageswith uncertainty reduction theory from its origin to date. Ever since uncertainty reduction theory was first created, many researchers have examined it by comparing it with other theories. Uncertainty reduction theory had been tested across different cultures in order to confirm its generalizability. It had also been applied to real life situations to examine how individuals interact in their initial encounters with strangers. In addition, researchers suggested testing uncertainty reduction theoryRead MoreThe Anxiety / Uncertainty Management Theory Of Effective Communication Essay2054 Words   |  9 PagesThe Anxiety/Uncertainty Management The ory of Effective Communication is to explain how managing uncertainty and anxiety help achieve effective communication with â€Å"strangers†. The theory argues that most of our communication involves both interpersonal and intergroup processes, but communication with outgroup members has more intergroup than interpersonal factors, which causes higher uncertainty and anxiety. Managing uncertainty and anxiety is a main contribution to effective communication (e.g., measuredRead MoreEssay On Diabetes1438 Words   |  6 Pages Program Narrative: Obesity and Diabetes Reduction in Alexandria Student’s Name Institution Affiliation Program Narrative: Obesity and Diabetes Reduction in Alexandria Introduction Obesity and diabetes are serious public health problems that have far reaching health and economic consequences. In the US, and the world over, obesity and diabetes have reached epidemic proportions (Acton, 2013). For instance, the annual medical costs for obesity in the US was approximately $145 billionRead MoreQuiz Final1582 Words   |  7 PagesUniversity of Phoenix Faculty Material Communication Quiz Final- Rosemary Clarke Underline the best answers to the following 30 multiple choice questions. Multiple Choice 1. COMMUNICATION IS DEFINED AS a. the sense that people extract from a message b. the social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment c. the perceived rightness or wrongness of an action d. the ability to transmit ones ethical decisions through proper channels 2. TheRead MoreChronic Diseases Are The Leading Cause Of Death And Disability1586 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to the World health organization , chronic diseases take the lives of more than 30 million people each year and are defined as an illness that is long in duration, slow in progression and is not passed from person to person. For Australia alone chronic diseases are the leading cause of death and disability. The Australian department of healths defining factors of chronic disease include, illness that is prolonged in duration, rarely cured completely and disease that does not often resolveRead MoreSelf Disclosure : The World Wide Web Essay1789 Words   |  8 Pageswith millions of people at the same time (Bazarova Choi, 2014), and it has become a socially acceptable place for people to meet their significant other. (Kang Hoffman, 2011) It is said that people prefer computer-mediated communication over face-to-face communication to find a romantic partner because of a th at lack of face-to-face interaction, (Kang Hoffman, 2011) Self-disclosure can be defined as the amount of information that one shares with another person, it is essential to the developmentRead MoreRisk Information Seeking And Processing Model Literature Review1557 Words   |  7 Pagesplays in risk communication, focusing on audience motivations and capacity to make sense of risk, and hopefully predict their response to risk messages. This literature review provides an overview and history of the RISP model, and discusses the future of the theory. Historical Underpinnings of the RISP Model The RISP model takes concepts from two existing and largely researched models in their own rights, the Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM) (Eagly Chaiken, 1993) and the Theory of Planned BehaviorRead MoreSummary Communication Theory13084 Words   |  53 PagesIntroduction to Communication Theory: Course Summary Chapter 1: Launching your study What is a theory? What distinguishes a good theory from a bad theory? A theory is a set of systematic informed hunches about the way things work. A good theory goes beyond accepted wisdom and offers explanations and speculations about phenomena. Additionally, a good theory consists of a system of concepts which means that the theorist were able to make connections among his ideas. A theory tends to shapeRead MoreThe Importance Of Bloodstream Infections1263 Words   |  6 PagesCLABSIs to the National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) of the Center for Disease Control (CDC-2011). When a nurse manually disinfecting the hub catheter with 70% alcohol and/or chlorhexidine, povidone iodine this continues to remain a low with the uncertainty of duration and compliance of patient safety practice according to the hospitals recommended scrubbing (15-60 secs) and drying times (30 secs). Implementing new and effective tools beyond the standard, monitoring its compliance and instituting

Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Sun - 1527 Words

â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† is about the Younger Family who live in a small apartment in Chicago. The family is torn apart as every member has different dreams and goals, yet Mama and her daughter-in-law Ruth desperately attempt to hold the family all together. In both the movie and the play, the family’s dreams remain the same. Mama wants her family to get along and she wants to purchase a house. Her son, Walter, wants the life insurance money from his father to invest in a liquor store to achieve his goal of becoming a businessman. These dreams remain the same, but in the movie, certain scenes are added in order to give Walter a motive for his desire, other than pure greed. The additional scenes make it less obvious that his friend Willy is going to scam them. The movie visually displays the apartment in a better light than the play describes but still had the characters talk about the roaches and cracked walls. In â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† by Lorraine Hansberr y, the differences in script between the original play and the movie increase the family’s desperation to get out of their apartment, and add to the complexity of Walter’s motivation, all which make the movie more powerful overall. In both the movie and the play of â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun,† money is very important to every member of the family, but not as significant to Travis. Many of their dreams require money: Walter wants to invest in the liquor store, Mama dreams of a house for her family, and Beneatha wants to be a doctor.Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin And The Sun Essay2363 Words   |  10 PagesPoverty is always a great place to start a story, yet is there a lesson to be learned if the characters ends up right where they started? That is one of the several predicaments in the story â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† by Afro American writer Lorraine Hansberry. The story takes place in Chicago during the late 1950’s the civil rights era, and the most prevalent question is what makes an African American different to any other person. The story dives deep into what that is through the use of money, as theRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Su n 1854 Words   |  8 Pageseven drink from the same water fountain. Schools being desegregated has helped young American people grow together in an educational environment, where they can build friendships with students of other races. Throughout the play, â€Å"A Raisin in the Sun†, Lorraine Hansberry vividly portrays the racism and discrimination of white people towards African-Americans in the fifties, as well as similarities to her own childhood. Walter Lee Younger, husband of Ruth Younger, works as a chauffeur for a rich whiteRead MoreSummary of Lorraine Hansberry ´s A Raisin in the Sun676 Words   |  3 Pages â€Å"A Dreamed Deferred† The drama â€Å"A Raisin in the sun† was release February 25, 2008; written by Lorraine Hansberry as a play and directed by Kenny Leon as a movie. The film main character are Walter Younger Jr (Sean Combs) anaa Lathan (Beneatha Younger), Audra Mcdonald (Ruth Younger), Phylicia Rashad (lena Younger), Justin Martin (Travis Younger) Bill Nunn (bobo), David Oyelowo (Josepj Asagai), Ron Jones (willy harris), Sean Patrick Thomas (George Murchison), and John Stamos (carl Linder). AsRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Sun 1797 Words   |  8 Pages Worthless money itself All money brings is nothing but dreams and evil. Where there is money there is also dishonesty or corruption.. In a play called â€Å"A Raisin In The Sun† by Lorraine Hansberry, she focuses on the struggle that was faced by one African American family from late 1950s. As the play opens, the family are about to receive an insurance check for $10,000. This money comes from the death of Mr.Younger’s insurance policy. Everyone was very excited and were waiting for the money to beRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Sun 1876 Words   |  8 PagesA Raisin in the Sun is a play written by Lorraine Hansberry in 1959. This is a story about an African American family striving to reach the American Dream despite significant financial difficulties and a racially oppressive environment in the postwar era. The passage I chose was from Act 2, scene 3 of the play. This is when the chairmen of the neighborhood committee in Clybourne Park, Mr. Lindner comes to speak with the Younger family about their future presence in the neighborhood. This passageRead MoreBeneathas Dream in Lorraine Hansberry ´s A Raisin in the Sun604 Words   |  2 Pagesyour sleep, it is the desire, the want, the need of something happening in your life. Dreams give uou a purpose and a reson to live. Chasing your dreams will help you have courage and independence. A Raisin in the Sun, written by Lorraine Hansberry, is a play about an African American family in the 1950’s who receive an insurance check of $10,000. Each member of the family has their own dream of what they would like to do with the check. While it is true that Walter’s dream of owning his own liquorRead MoreAn Analysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Sun 914 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† is an autobiographical play written in 1950 by Lorraine Hansberry, an African American writer. The main characters are the Younger family, Mama, his son Walter and her dau ghter Beneatha. The play dramatizes a conflict between the main characters’ dreams and their actual lives’ struggles in poverty and racism. The main characters’ lives as African-Americans contribute to their feeling of entrapment by poverty and racism. The play predicts the black society struggles in the yearsRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorraine Hansberry s A Raisin Of The Sun 1343 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"A Raisin in the Sun† is play written by Lorraine Hansberry about a struggling African American family. Set in the nineteen-fifties, the play explores the dynamics of how the family operates in a time era Chicago that challenges the family with poor economic status and racial prejudice. Hansberry uses dreams as one of her main themes in this play. Three of the characters, Walter, Beneatha, and Mama, all have a similar goal in their respective dreams, to improve the life of the whole family, butRead MoreLorraine Hansberry s A Raisin And The Sun, There Is A Poem By Langston Hughes1034 Words   |  5 PagesThe epigraph to Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, there is a poem by Langston Hughes titled: â€Å"What happens to a dream deferred?† I believe the reason why Hansberry chose this particular poem as the epigraph to her play to be a form of foreshadowing and metaphor for the Younger family. In Hughes’s poem, there are four potential outcomes for when a raisin is left in the sun. It could fester like a sore and then run. A could smell like rotten meat. It could crust and sugar over. Or does it explodeRead MoreWalter Lee ´s Evolution in A Raisin In the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry685 Words   |  3 Pages In many works of literature, some characters change and grow while others remain the same. A character who changes is known as a dynamic character. In the novel A Raisin In the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry, the main character, Walter Lee Younger, is an example of a dynamic character. Walter lives with his wife Ruth, his sister Beneatha, his son Travis, and his mother Lena in a small, one family apartment in the southside of Chicago. The black Younger family lived in a time period between 1945 and

Camus the outsider vs. bolts a Essay Example For Students

Camus the outsider vs. bolts a Essay What could a deeply religious, devout Christian nobleman and an existential, indifferent common man separated by roughly four hundred years have in common? Furthermore, what could Sir Thomas More, an eventual saintly martyr as portrayed in Robert Bolt’s A Man For All Seasons, and Albert Camus’ Meursault from The Outsider, an apparent murderer who does not believe in God, possibly have in common? For starters, both men have led similar lives in a search for the truth, and have very strong personal belief systems. It is for this that they are persecuted and â€Å"who, without any heroic pretensions, agreeto die for the truth† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 119). Both characters, More and Meursault refuse to compromise their beliefs and as a result society condemns them. Despite their obvious differences More and Meursault were similar men in many ways. Both men led routine lifestyles. More is a very devout Christian and as such is immersed in repetitious behaviour. Throughout the play More is often found praying, even during the arrival of the King at his home. More enters the scene just in the nick of time wearing a cassock, just as the King is nearly upon him, and knowingly risks disfavour with his liege because his prayer is that important to him. Norfolk is indignant at this behaviour, â€Å"What sort of fooling is this? Does the king visit you every day† (A Man For All Seasons, Robert Bolt, Act One, p. 26). Also, according to his Steward â€Å"Sir Thomas rises at six and prays for an hour and a half†, â€Å"During Lent he lived entirely on bread and water† and â€Å"He goes to confession twice a week† (A Man For All Seasons, Bolt, I, p. 23). It is in this way that More endeavours in a search for truth about life, h e looks to God for the answers. Meursault is also immersed in routine, but his is a routine of a simple lifestyle. His week is made up of breakfast at Celeste’s and his nine to five day job and he â€Å"used to wait for Saturdays to embrace Marie’s body† (The Outsider, Albert Camus, p. 75). Meursault also had found his truth, but as Camus states in his after word, â€Å"This truth is as yet a negative one, a truth born of living and feeling† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 119). It is this truth that results in Meursault’s very strong beliefs. Even faced with death, he is firm in his position that there is no God. He regards the prison chaplain as one who â€Å"couldn’t even be sure he was alive because he was living like a dead man† and in regards to himself affirms his position. I might seem to be empty-handed but I was sure of myself, sure of everything, surer than he was, sure of my life and sure of the death that was coming to me.Yes, that was all I had. But at least it was a truth which I had hold of just as it had hold of me. (The Outsider, Camus, p. 115)Likewise, More also had his own beliefs, deeply rooted in religion in contrast with Meursault, on which he stood resolute. More readily denounces his strong friendship with Norfolk rather than betray his ideals, â€Å"Howard you must cease to know meas a friend. I can’t give in Our friendship’s more mutable than that.† Even when offered friendship and redemption, More and Meursault refused to compromise their beliefs. Due to their contradictory ideas, Meursault and More are pressured by their respective societies to conform. Regardless, they are both very honest men and refuse to lie to simply meet the expectations of the people around them. As pointed out by Camus â€Å"Lying is not only saying what isn’t true. It is alsosaying more than is true andsaying more than one feels† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 118). Meursault refuses to tell Marie that he loves her because that would be saying more than he feels. He is brutally honest with her because that is his nature, admitting that he doesn’t really care whether they get married or not. So it is in this way that Meursault is â€Å"condemned because he doesn’t play the gamehe refuses to lie†. Meursault will not play his lawyer’s game wherein by stretching the truth on a few points, he could probably walk away without the death sentence. Instead he does not try to hide the fact that he did not cry at his motherâ €™s funeral and when asked if he regrets his crime he admittedly replies that he â€Å"feels more annoyance about it than true regret† (Ibid., p. 19). More also refuses to â€Å"play the game†, he is consistently offered escapes throughout the play. He is promised great rewards from the King, and Margaret pleads with him, offering a loophole, â€Å" ‘God more regards the thoughts of the heart than the words of the mouth’ or so you’ve always told me. Then say the words of the oath and in your heart think otherwise† (A Man For All Seasons, Bolt, II p. 83). However, More will not accept this and explains why it would be a betrayal of the self to do so. .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .postImageUrl , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:hover , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:visited , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:active { border:0!important; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:active , .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7 .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf94d5c64b7f06fac077a427a048868b7:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Free Glass Menageries: Criticism Glass Menag EssayWhen a man takes an oathhe’s holding his own self in his own hands. Like water and if he opens his fingers then he needn’t hope to find himself again.(Ibid.)It is with such an understanding that More must grow to accept his imminent death. He knows that as long as he stands on this point that he will eventually be executed. There were times during his imprisonment in which More was â€Å"in such a case that I thought to die within the hour† (A Man For All Seasons, Bolt, II p.97). These same difficulties were faced by Meursault upon his imprisonment, at first what preoccupied him was â€Å"trying to es cape from the mechanism, trying to find if there’s any way out of the inevitable† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 104). Eventually though he came to the realization that â€Å"Given that you’ve got to die, it obviously doesn’t matter exactly how or when† (Ibid., p. 109), finally accepting his fate, condemned for refusing to â€Å"play the game†. It was Meursault and More’s determination to stand for what they believed in, that results in their condemnation by society for doing so. They are condemned because society always has the capacity to hate anyone, or anything, that is different. Meursault is discriminated against because his behaviour is different from most people, and the jury shows him no remorse because of it. Camus wrote that â€Å"In our society any man who doesn’t cry at his mother’s funeral is liable to be condemned to death† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 118). This prejudice is amplified by the fact that not only is Meursault different, but because society does not understand him. The chaplain does not understand how Meursault does not believe in God and does not seek redemption, he says â€Å"Have you really no hope at all and do you live in the belief that you are to die outright?† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 112). In the same way, More’s friend Norfolk cannot understand why , his life hanging in the balance, More will not give in. Goddammit, man, it’s disproportionate! We’re supposed to be the arrogant ones,the proud, splenetic ones and we’ve all given in! Why must you stand out?† (A Man For All Seasons, Bolt, II p. 71)Also, Meursault and More’s societies relieve their conscience by convincing themselves that these men have been given every chance for redemption, have shunned them, and so deserve the fate of their own choosing. Norfolk tries desperately to offer More one final chance, â€Å"I don’t know whether the marriage was lawful or not. But damn it, Thomas, look at those namesYou know those men! Can’t you do what I did, and come with us, for fellowship?† (A Man For All Seasons, Bolt, II p. 78). Norfolk knows that he did what he had to do to survive, and he had given More every opportunity to do the same, and so he can accept More’s fate knowing that he did â€Å"everything he couldâ €  to help. Meursault also is given every chance by society to prove himself a man of conscience. Instead he openly admits that he didn’t cry at his mother’s funeral, considers a suspected procurer a friend and even intervened on his behalf when he had beaten his mistress. Society could accept the execution of an â€Å"immoral monster†. So Meursault and More willingly accepted their sentence, since it was more important to them not to betray themselves. Meursault and More have shared a very similar life experience, a search for the truth, in which they have been condemned by society for standing resolute on their strong beliefs; for refusing to â€Å"play the game†, for refusing to lie. However these men have succeeded in their own right. Upon his call to death, Meursault â€Å"for the first timelaid myself opento the benign indifference of the world. And finding it so much like myself, in fact so fraternal, I realized that I’d been happy, and that I was still happy† (The Outsider, Camus, p. 117). Likewise, Sir Thomas had his own personal victory. Regardless of any protest, More apparently is the stuff of which martyrs are made and it would appear that, much to Richard Rich’s undoubted dismay, that Sir Thomas More was correct: Not every man has his price, not even in suffering.

The Social Contract

Introduction The concept of â€Å"the Social Contract† states that in order for society to continue to develop and maintain order a main set of rules must be agreed upon in order to set into motion proper ethical values (Blake, 2009: 1 – 2). In other words a social contract can be considered a form of moral obligation that a person or group of individuals agree to in order to form the society that they currently live in.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Social Contract specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There are numerous manifestations of this which can be seen in the world today such as individuals following a distinct set of moral and ethical standards when it comes to dealing with other members of society. In the case of businesses this comes in the form of adhering to a certain moral code involving the way in which they provide goods and services to their consumers or deal with other businesse s within the same industry. The application of this moral code takes the form of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) which is the application of internal self-regulating practices by a business to ensure that it follows a distinct set of ethical standards, business norms and laws (Welker, Partridge Hardin, 2011: 3 – 8). What must be understood though is that businesses are primarily profit driven, this can be seen in the case of Carroll’s pyramid wherein economic responsibilities form the base of the pyramid and are the primary focus of all businesses today. Thus, when it comes to the importance businesses accrue to the concept of CSR it can be seen that in the business decision matrix they consider it to be less than the need to be profitable. This method of thinking has given rise to numerous ethically dubious practices ranging from environmental degradation through various acts of pollution, overconsumption of natural resources such as fish and trees, the use of sweat shops, and finally various practices such as corporate collusion and the creation of monopolies in order to better control the options of consumers. It is based on this that it must be questioned how the social contract can be implemented on corporations in light of their morally ambiguous actions in the present. Current Business Practices in the World Today As mentioned earlier, businesses are primarily profit driven and as such seek to maximize profits and reduce costs in any way that they can.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Barriers to doing so come in the form of laws that either limit particular practices (such as environmental conservation laws), outright ban particular practices (as seen in the case of laws against corporate collusion and the formation of monopolies) or implement measures that constrain a company’s ability to produce goods at a far cheap er rate (labor laws and local tax rates). In order to get around this, many companies have begun outsourcing their means of production to various countries such as India and China. While corporations do have the right to reduce their cost of operations it must be wondered whether the basis for this cost reduction violates certain ethical standards of doing business (Stansbury, 2009: 33 – 44). For example, it can be seen in the case of China that due to the lack of environmental conservation laws companies can in effect utilize production methods that are cheaper but environmentally damaging. Furthermore, since these locations are far from prying eyes of consumers the use of sweat shops with deplorable conditions for their workers has become a rampant means of reducing costs (Ramasamy Yeung, n.d.: 119). Various U.S. based companies get away with such actions by stating that they were unaware of such practices since the work was contracted to another company yet it is obvious that there is no way that they wouldn’t have known given the savings they gain from such practices. Other questionable ethical practices can be seen within the U.S. today wherein various corporations (such as GE) have received billions of dollars in corporate tax breaks in order to generate local jobs yet these companies (GE in particular) have instead continued the practice of outsourcing to locations such as China. Lastly, it was reported in 2011 that the supply of blue fin tuna in the world’s oceans today has been severely depleted due to overfishing yet the response of fishing companies has been to continue the practice despite the fact that they are in effect driving an entire species into extinction.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Social Contract specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is this and other morally questionable practices that one must wonder whether the social contract is even a pplicable to corporations at all or if they even consider themselves under its mandate considering the sheer amount of violations seen around the world. Application of Theories One way of looking at this problem is from the perspective of Garret Hardin and his view regarding self-interest and consensual constraint. For Hardin it is actually impossible for any individual (or in this case a corporation) to act or make a decision against its own interest. This manifests itself in the decision to pursue an act of self interest in order to maximize the utility that can be derived from the consumption or use of a particular resource. In the case of corporations this comes in the form of the large scale consumption of various natural resources such as fossil fuels, mineral resources and even fish in order to make a profit from their line of business. Unfortunately, Hardin states that it is due to this pursuit of independent self-interest that a limited resource will inevitably be depleted which really isn’t in the best interests of all parties concerned. One way of resolving this issue is to apply what Hardin calls â€Å"consensual constraint† involving mutual constraint regarding the use of a particular resource in order to prevent it from being overtaxed and thus unusable in the future. Has this particular action been followed at the present, no it hasn’t. Due to the competitive nature of corporations, consensual constraint is rarely applied as seen in the case of resource extractions (i.e. oil and mineral extraction) or overharvesting (i.e. deforestation and overfishing). What must be understood is that while Carroll shows that corporations have a moral obligation to society due to corporate citizenship the fact remains that when given a choice between following proper CSR or the company failing and going bankrupt as a result most corporations choose to pursue actions of moral or ethical ambiguity.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It isn’t that corporations aren’t aware of their obligation towards society but rather what must be understood is that corporations will often pursue a strategy for survival first then the application of ethical practices later. Interpreting the Social Contract From the standpoint of Hardin, corporations have a collective responsibility regarding their limitation of resource usage in order to conform to the moral obligations of the social contract (Brzozowski, 2003: 161). The application of the social contract between corporations and society from this perspective is thus one of preservation wherein corporations agree to limit their actions in order to ensure that resources will still be around for future generations. This is only possible through collective action and agreement since if it were based on individual reciprocity it is doubtful that individual corporations would chose to follow this. What must be understood is that from perspective of Carroll corporations actually do want to apply proper CSR in their actions since this creates better public relation for the company. The inherent problem with this is the fact that due to the competitive nature of companies as seen from the perspective of Hardin it becomes harder to implement CSR as corporations struggle to make profits in an economy where morally ambiguous corporate actions result in differing price ratios which aren’t in favor of a company that isn’t willing to pursue alternative actions of possible moral ambiguity. From the perspective of Carroll corporations have a certain â€Å"obligation† towards society in the form of corporate citizenship. This is the application of the social contract through an adherence towards moral and ethical behavior that benefits society since this in turn would cause better business practices to flourish. On the other hand, as it can be seen in the case of Hardin it is often doubtful whether individual corporations are capable of applying corporate citizenship into their business models. It can be seen in the case examples within this paper that there have already been numerous moral and ethical violations committed by corporations. From a certain perspective it can be seen that for Hardin individual action leads to the development of individual interests which result in difficulties in applying proper ethical practices. For Carroll it can be seen that individual corporations can be made to follow CSR due to the effects of corporate citizen and the social contract. It is from my point of view that I would agree more with Hardin regarding collective action resulting in positive collaborative behavior rather than leaving it up to individual corporations and their supposed adherence to CSR. What must be understood is that the social contract can be applied in many ways, one of which is a partial implementation of moral obligation while the company in turn commits other morally ambiguous behaviors (Wagner, Lutz Weitz, 2009: 77 – 81). For example, the concept of going green is based off the process of altering approaches towards the consumption and utilization of resources so as to ensure a more environmentally friendly method of using and consuming resources. One company that does this particular practice is GE which prides itself in adhering to â€Å"green practices†. While this adheres to the principles seen in Carroll’s pyramid regarding legal, ethical and sustainable resource responsibilities what must be understood is that the company is at the same time planning to shift a large percentage of its production facilities to China despite the fact it received large tax cuts from the U.S. government in order to create more jobs. In effect what occurs in this particular case is a partial application of CSR with a morally ambiguous action being done by the company at the same time (Wagner, Lutz Weitz, 2009: 77 – 81). What must be understood is that in the case of corporations it is their need to be profitable which results in the development of corporate rivalries. The only way to diffuse this is to implement a way of collective responsibility that corporations would feel towards society. While it may be true that Carroll’s model is an effective guide towards proper corporate conduct it neglects to take into account aspects related to individual self-interest which Hardin does take into consideration. Through the use of Hardin’s theory and Carroll’s pyramid it can be stated that corporations can only be made to agree to conform to the social contract if collective responsibility is applied so as to remove the competitive nature of corporations that compel them to pursue morally dubious practices in order to stay relevant and profitable. By doing so a collective response can be created to enable socially responsible actions that promote the wellbeing of society. Reference List Blake, N 2009, ‘The Social Contractà ¢â‚¬â„¢, Magill’S Survey Of World Literature, Revised Edition, pp. 1-2, Literary Reference Center, EBSCOhost. Brzozowski, D 2003, ‘Lifeboat ethics: rescuing the metaphor’, Ethics, Place Environment, 6, 2, p. 161, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Ramasamy, B, Yeung, M n.d., ‘Chinese Consumers’ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)’, Journal Of Business Ethics, 88, p. 119, Science Reference Center, EBSCOhost. Stansbury, J 2009, ‘Reasoned Moral Agreement: Applying Discourse Ethics within Organizations’, Business Ethics Quarterly, 19, 1, pp. 33-56, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Wagner, T, Lutz, R, Weitz, B 2009, ‘Corporate hypocrisy: overcoming the threat of inconsistent corporate social responsibility perceptions’, Journal Of Marketing, 73, 6, pp. 77-91, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost. Welker, M, Partridge, D, Hardin, R 2011, ‘Corporate lives: new perspectives on the social life of th e corporate form’, Current Anthropology, 52, 3, pp. 3-16, This essay on The Social Contract was written and submitted by user Leo Erickson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

People like Us Social Class in America Web Assessment essayEssay Writing Service

People like Us Social Class in America Web Assessment essayEssay Writing Service People like Us: Social Class in America Web Assessment essay People like Us: Social Class in America Web Assessment essayHow does social class matter? This issue has been widely discussed in our society. For many years, it has been a common assumption of many experts, including sociologists, economists, historians and political scientists that social class really matters a great deal. Social class does exist in America today, because many Americans realize that income and job, family background, education, attitudes and behaviors, aspirations, and even individual appearance can mark any person as a member of a particular social class.  Actually, the most important indicators of social class are income, occupation and education. It is necessary to combine these indicators to identify some hidden process that may affect human interpretation of the role of social class. The PBS website provides many examples that point out to the fact that social class really matters in human life. The PBS website, People Like Us: Social Class in America, asses ses class differences in various styles of living and various living standards as a fundamental hallmark of today’s society. Although some sociologists suggest that social class no longer exists in our society and does not affect people’s lives, it would be wrong to accept the â€Å"death of social class.† We identify different classes in our society, including middle class, working class, upper class, etc. Undoubtedly, social class can be very hard to identify, much harder than racial differences, but in many cases, social class can be regarded as the major predictor of an individual’s financial and educational opportunities. In the final segments of   the documentary People Like Us: Social Class in America, the authors represent Anderson High School in Austin, Texas as an effective microcosmic example of the so-called social segmentation that has the potential to be extended throughout the macro level.Besides, many Americans would agree with the ideas of Peter Berger that can be found in his Invitation to Sociology first published in 1963, â€Å"different classes in our society not only live differently quantitatively, they live in different styles qualitatively†. As a matter of fact, people are treated differently because of different social classes. William Domhoff analyzes capitalist class as a social class and as a ruling class in today’s society.I cannot but agree with these ideas. I have experienced class differences in my life and know that social class plays an important role in the lives of all Americans. Those people who live in Park Avenue penthouses differ from the residents of Appalachian trailer parks and bayou houseboats, as well as from the residents of suburban gated communities. They have different lifestyle choices, different opportunities and different preferences in their lives. The documentary People Like Us: Social Class in America helps to better understand the impact of social class on huma n life and identify the existing differences between social classes. In fact, American citizens are aware of class distinctions, which cause inequalities of opportunity. I agree that Americans classify each other, paying due attention to the effects of our inherited social class, including individuals’ self-perceptions and expectations.Thus, race, ethnicity, education, income and other factors make the arrangement of social distinctions in our society more complicated. This fact means that social class does exist in American society today.   Moreover, most Americans realize the meaning of class, placing emphasis on the role of social and economic conditions, power, income, job, race, religion, self-image and attitudes, and many other factors.

The Federal Reserve in Macroeconomics

The Federal Reserve in Macroeconomics Free Online Research Papers Monetary policy has become the dominant component of the United Stated stabilization policy because it is faster and more flexible than fiscal policy; as well monetary policy is isolated from political pressure. The Federal Reserve has three primary monetary tools by which it can influence the money creating abilities of the commercial banking system; open market operations, reserve ratio and discount rate (Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2007). An open market operation consists of the buying and selling of government bonds to both commercial banks and the public. This process of buying and selling securities is the Federal Reserve’s most effective way of influencing the money supply. Whether the Federal Reserve decides to buy government bonds from commercial banks or the public, the reserves of commercial banks will increase. When the Federal Reserve buys bonds from commercial banks the bank gives up part of their bonds to the Federal Reserve banks and in paying for those bonds the reserves of the commercial bank will increase. The most important thing about this transaction is by increasing the reserves in the banking system the lending ability of commercial banks will also increase. Although the effect of purchasing bonds from the public is similar to that of purchasing bonds from commercial banks the process is different. The transaction begins with the individual or company giving their bonds to the Federal Reserve Banks where they will receive a check drawn directly from the Federal Reserve Banks. The individual will then deposit the check into their commercial bank account. Once deposited the commercial bank will send the check to the Federal Reserve for collection; in turn increasing the commercial banks reserves. In the open market, commercial banks reserves are increased when Federal Reser ve Banks buy securities. On the contrary, when Federal Reserve Banks sell government bonds the reserves of commercial banks are reduced. In the open market Federal Reserve Banks give up bonds to commercial banks; which are paid for by drawing checks against the banks’ deposits. The Federal Reserve then collects the funds by reducing the commercial banks’ reserves. When the Federal Reserve Banks sell bonds to the public the individual or company pays with a check drawn from the commercial bank. The check is then drawn off of the commercial banks’ reserves and the checkable deposit of the individual is reduced. As the Federal Reserve Banks sell government bonds in the open market, commercial bank reserves are reduced. The second way the Federal Reserve attempts to control the money supply is through manipulating the reserve ratio; which is the percentage of commercial bank deposit liabilities required as reserves. Change in the reserve ratio affects the money creating ability of the banking system by changing the amount of excess reserves and changing the size of the monetary multiplier. Raising the reserve ratio causes the commercial banks to reduce checkable deposits. While lowering the reserve ratio transforms required reserves into excess reserves; enhancing the commercial banks’ ability to create new money. Although manipulating the reserve ratio is a powerful tool in monetary control it is not used very often. Lastly, when a commercial bank is forced to draw a short term loan from the Federal Reserve it gives the Federal Reserve a promissory note drawn against its self and secured by government bonds. The Federal Reserve will in turn charge the commercial bank interest on the loan. The interest charged is called the discount rate. The ability of commercial banks to make loans from the Federal Reserve Banks increases the reserves of the commercial bank enhancing the bank’s ability to extend credit to their customers. As the Federal Reserve lowers the discount rate the money supply increases and as the discount rate increase the money supply is reduced. The money supply consists of currency and checkable deposits. Money is created via three different avenues; the Federal Reserve and banking system, single commercial banks and the banking system (multiple deposit expansion). The United States has a fractional reserve banking system in which only a fraction of the total money supply is held in reserve as currency. The fractional reserve banking system has two defining characteristics. The first characteristic of the fractional reserve banking system is money creation and reserves. In today’s economy banks can create money (checkable deposits) through lending. The amount of checkable deposits created is limited by the amount of currency reserves the bank is required by law to keep. Secondly, banks that operate using fractional reserves can be vulnerable to panics. A panic occurs when the majority of people who deposited money into a bank all demand their money at the same time. In this circumstance the bank would be ruined as it has issued more checkable deposits than the amount of currency available. Fortunately, a bank panic is unlikely as long as the banker’s reserve and lending policies are prudent. Single commercial banks create money by granting loans, repaying loans and buying government securities. When a bank grants a loan it creates money. An individual can walk into the bank with nothing and walk out with a checkable deposit (money). A large amount of the money in our economy today is created via commercial banks by the extension of credit. When a loan is repaid the supply of money is reduced, the amount of checkable deposits destroyed. The decrease in checkable deposits lowers the bank’s required reserves in turn providing excess reserves creating the basis for new making new loans. The third and final way a commercial bank makes money is by purchasing government securities. When a bank buys government bonds from the public money is created. Purchasing government bonds from the public creates money in the same way as lending to the public does. Banks accept government bonds (not money) and give the securities dealers an increase in its checkable deposit s (money) (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). The commercial banking system can lend (can create money) by a multiple of its excess reserves making it different from single commercial banks which can only lend dollar for dollar from their reserves. The banking system uses a monetary multiplier to magnify excess reserves into a larger checkable deposit. The monetary multiplier exists because the reserves and deposits lost by one bank become reserves of another bank. It magnifies excess reserves into a larger creation of checkable-deposit money (Schoen, 2007). The Federal Reserve uses varying monetary policies to help the economy achieve price stability, full employment, and economic growth. Monetary policy operates through a complex cause-effect chain. Policy decisions affect commercial bank reserves; changes in reserves affect the money supply; changes in the money supply alter the interest rate; changes in the interest rate affect investment; changes in investment affect aggregate demand; changes in aggregate demand affect the equilibrium real GDP and the price level (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). The easy money policy (or expansionary monetary policy) occurs when the Federal Reserve buys government bonds in an open market and lowers both the reserve ration and the discount rate (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). The purpose of the easy money policy is to make bank loans less expensive and more available and thereby increase aggregate demand, output, and employment. The steps of the easy money policy when applied during a recession and time of increased unemployment are 1) Federal Reserve buys bonds, lowers the reserve ratio or discount rate, 2) excess reserves increase, 3) money supply rises, 4) interest rates fall, 5) investment spending increases, 6) aggregate demand increases, 7) real GDP rises (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). Tight money policy (or restrictive monetary policy) occurs when the Federal Reserve sells government bonds and increases both the reserve ratio and the discount rate. The goal of the tight money policy is to limit the amount of money to reduce spending and control inflation. The steps of the tight money policy applied during a time of inflation are 1) Federal Reserve sells bonds, increase the reserve ratio or discount rate, 2) excess reserves decrease, 3) money supply falls, 4) interest rates rise, 5) investment spending decreases, 6) aggregate demand decrease, 7) inflation decreases (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). Monetary policy faces complications and problems such as lags, changes in velocity and cyclical asymmetry. Lags occur because once the Federal Reserve acts it can take three to six months for interest-rate changes to have their full impacts on investment, aggregate demand, real GDP, and the price level. The velocity of money may increase or decrease during the time the Federal Reserve is trying to increase or decrease the money supply frustrating monetary policy. Cyclical asymmetry occurs when monetary policy is effective at controlling inflation but less effective when pushing the economy out of recession (Robert J. Gordon, 2007). It is possible that the Federal Reserve can create and control the flow of money in the United States by buying and selling government bonds to commercial banks as well as to the general public; adjusting the reserve ratio and the discount rate. Although monetary policy has its weaknesses, as time lags, the possibility that changes in velocity will offset it and potential ineffectiveness during a severe recession becomes its strength. The Federal Reserve has flexibility, speed and political acceptability that make it the dominant choice for policy stabilization in the United States today. : Federal Reserve Bank of New York (2007). Tools of Monetary Policy-You and the Fed-Economic Education. Retrieved April 2, 2009 from Federal Reserve System Web site: newyorkfed.org/education/fed/tools.html Schoen, John (2007). How does Fed ‘inject’ Money into the System?. Retrieved April 5, 2009 from MSNBC Web site: msnbc.msn.com/id/20218020/ Peter Coy , Macroeconomics: Adjusting the Big Picture. Business Week APRIL 16, 2009 Web.21 April 2009. businessweek.com/magazine/content/09_17/b4128030003762.htm. Wailin Wong | Tribune reporter, THE Buying American: Helpful or hurtful for the struggling U.S. economy?. THE ECONOMY AND CONSUMERS April 7, 2009 Web.1 May 2009. http://americaneconomicalert.org/news_item.asp?NID=3725516. Gordon, Robert J. Macroeconomics. 11th. Boston: Pearson Addison Wesley, 2007. Print. Research Papers on The Federal Reserve in MacroeconomicsTwilight of the UAWGenetic EngineeringOpen Architechture a white paperQuebec and CanadaPETSTEL analysis of IndiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalMind TravelThe Spring and AutumnAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and

Colonisism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Colonisism - Essay Example Colonism always takes place because of the colonising nation feels that it can exploit various benefits out of the colonial territory. For e-g British Empire in 1800s took control of the Indian Subcontinent via colonism because of the world famous spices that India was producing and because of their famous silk cloth. If they would have not done this, India would have become a richer and much powerful state than the British themselves. So, Britishers exploited India by taking these resources under their own control and then exporting them to other parts of the world earning huge amounts. Similarly, all other colonies we formed because the colonising nation felt the gains they could exploit by setting up their bases in those areas. Whether these gains be economic, political, social or whatever they be , all colonies were formed because of the incentive that were present there for the colonising nations. To use cheap labour of the country to maximise efficiency and gain. For e-g Indian soldiers were not only used to protect India but during World War 2, Britishers sent them on war front representing The British Empire. To create link with countries that borders with the colonised nation. For e-g When Britishers took over Indian sub-continent, they created links with Afghanistan and China. By these links they were able to create their own influence in Afghanistan and were near colonizing Afghanistan too. To develop trade links with neighboring countries and increasing foreign trade with them this will earn revenue. To use the natural resources of the colonized countries. For some countries are better suited for agriculture than others. Some are richer in natural resources such as oil. By having these countries under your banner, you own their resources as well. Hence, colonism leads to free use of such resources. By using the infrastructural links that a colony has with its neighboring countries it can use these infrastructural facilities for their own purpose. For e-g Indian Subcontinent had good road networks with Afghanistan. Now whenever Britain wanted to export anything to Afghanistan, instead of using expensive ports and port taxes and other duties, they simply used these road networks as a mean to have their goods delivered to Afghanistan. Apart from natural resources, skills and aptitudes of local population will be exploited by the colonizing nation. In the end, one can say that this colonism reaps a lot of benefits to the colonizing country. These can be political, social or economic. From an ethical point of view colonism is never justified. But the wealth that it brings to the colonizing nation is enormous and also the economic incentives are massive. So, these countries never look at ethical point of view but work towards their own interest which everyone in the world has the right to

Analyze the case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyze the - Case Study Example At this point, influence shows a remarkable impact on how the entire team would be formed with it. Rita was not influential enough and less empowered to sustain order within the group. Rita also did not realize her subordinates were forming social networks where informal communications overflowed. Failure on her part to demonstrate how to manage communication within the group, Rita ended up having subordinates not willing to participate and obey her point of view. After all, the key players or executives were very territorial and possessed extreme supremacy, so they belong to a group though in a simple hierarchical structure, but still they could implement high individualistic authority based on seniority complex. However, in general, Rita was working with a kind of work group with key players ready to do well if their potentials would only have been effectively tapped. The danger in working with this group would be the failure to recognize its open system of interaction, as the external inputs it might have received would develop a certain output. In the case of Department 8101, it has its open system that from any time would possibly result to negative entropy, differentiation or integration, depending on the prevailing approach implemented for managing with change and complexity. Rita should have been aware about the communication pattern of her group as the various inputs could actually penetrate here. Her failure to recognize this resulted to disorder in the system. Rita failed to recognize general systems approach or the group’s interaction, not minding about general system concepts like input, output, cycles, negative entropy, feedback, dynamic equilibrium, differentiation, integration and etc. She overlooked the fact that the new group she was trying to work with has its own balance and influence from surrounding environment and even has its

Asset Classes Paper Essay Example for Free

Asset Classes Paper Essay Business Finance Resources: Week One readings Select a mutual fund and a Dow 30 organization. Prepare a 700- to 1,050-word paper in which you determine asset classes for your mutual fund and Dow 30 organization. Explain how such classifications and the current investment environment affect organizational decisions concerning portfolio composition. Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines. A healthy diet is extremely important during your time at college. The freshman 15 can make a negative impact on your life if you do not eat properly. Make sure you are careful about your intake. Stay away from fast food, junk food and other terrible choices. These foods are quick and easy, but they are very bad for you. This work comprises FIN 402 Week 2 Asset Classes Paper Business Finance Resources: Week One readings Select a mutual fund and a Dow 30 organization. Prepare a 700- to 1,050-word paper in which you determine asset classes for your mutual fund and Dow 30 organization. Explain how such classifications and the current investment environment affect organizational decisions concerning portfolio composition. Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.

Ghost :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The fondest memories of my youth include hitting people with sticks and throwing people out of trees. I was probably only about 8 years old when I started masquerading in the woods as a Robin Hood type character. Along with me I had about 7 other outlaws. Daily we would go into the woods and change teammates on our different Klan’s. Someday's we even had up to 12 kids parading through the woods on missions to free friends and seek vengeance for unjust acts that had been committed in our territory. Literally jumping 30 feet in the air from one tree to the next was no large task, it was done almost automatically when a foe approached and was gaining fast on you. Especially when you carry a wound from a battle, the adrenaline will make you do crazed things. Without hesitation or second thought we commonly committed feats which would have caused our parents to banish us from the woods. Trees were used to cut down and turn into weapons. There were throwing stic ks, swords, staffs, and an entire array of undecipherable weapons that were used. Going into battle included tying sticks to your shins so sword blows wouldn't hurt and using sap to thicken the skin on your hands so when the sword went uncontrollably smashing into your hands it wouldn't hurt as bad. I proudly wore the title of king of the mountain. When there was no snow we climbed a steep hill that went straight down about 12 feet into a grass field. Uppercuts and hooks were not uncommon ways of getting a nemesis off of the mountain. I even had a special attack where I would squat, jump, slap the victim in the face, land, and sweep there legs out as I hit them in the knees and stepped on their feet. This would inevitably cause them to crash into the ground. It was almost every time someone was hit off the cliff that we had the wind knocked out of us. If a blow were too forceful then other people would hit you with sticks. At the end of the day we outlaws would be covered with dirt and blood with several abrasions. I loved those woods and think fondly of them whenever I reminisce upon my early childhood. One of the Greatest adventures we had when the entire group of us was together as one Klan occurred when I was in 3rd grade.

Chemistry-Precipitation Essay

My unknown chemical is sodium iodide. This was determined by testing the chemical with cations such as silver nitrate, cobalt (II) nitrate, and copper nitrate. It was also tested with anions: sodium iodide, sodium carbonate, sodium oxalate, and sodium phosphate. It was tested to see if the product will yield a precipitate or solid (cloudiness, power, or crystals) and any color changes that are very similar to the products/changes when all the known cations and anions were tested for changes. First of all, sodium iodide is an anion, it was determined that the unknown chemical was an anion because it did not react with any of the anions. Since the unknown did not react with the anions, it did not produce a solid or precipitate. This is chemically true because the new products will both contain NO3, or nitrate, and NO3 is aqueous with all cations. When the unknown was tested with silver nitrate a solid was produced, but also the color was a light yellow that is quite similar to the description of the product of sodium iodide added to silver nitrate (a dull but light yellow). This color was not exactly similar to the colors formed from other combinations as they were â€Å"slightly yellow† for the formula 2AgNO3(aq)+NaCO3(aq) –>AgCO3(s)+2NaNO3(aq) , â€Å"white† for 2AgNO3(aq)+NaC2O4(aq) –>AgC2O4(s)+2NaNO3(aq) , and â€Å"yellowish† for 3AgNO3(aq)+Na3PO4(aq) –>Ag3PO4(s)+3NaNO3(aq). A solid was formed in both situations due to a cloudy substance that formed with the silver nitrate + sodium iodide and the unknown + silver nitrate. It makes sense that a solid was formed because: AgNO3(aq)+NaI(aq) –>AgI(s)+NaNO3(aq) On the back of the periodic table it states that if the anion I- is part of the compound then cations like Ag+ and Pb2+ will form a solid with it. Since it is AgI, a solid is clearly formed. When the unknown was tested with cobalt (II) nitrate a solid was not produced and there was no color change it was the same light pink as originally, similar to the description of the product of sodium iodide added to cobalt (II) nitrate which was same light pink as the original color of the mixture. A solid was not formed in both situations because: Co(NO3)2(aq)+2NaI(aq) –>CoI2(aq)+2NaNO3(aq) According to the back of the periodic table it states that if the anion iodine is part of the compound then cations like Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+, and Cu+ will form a solid with it, but iodine with all other cations form an aqueous solution. Therefore, since cobalt is not listed as one of the cations that iodine forms a solid with, no solid would be formed which is exactly what happened when sodium iodide was added to cobalt (II) nitrate and no other combination with cobalt (II) nitrate. Since sodium iodide in combination with cobalt (II) nitrate was the only one involving cobalt (II) nitrate that did not have a reaction it proves that the unknown is one of the two. But, since it has been proven that unknown is an anion, sodium iodide is our only option. When the unknown was tested with copper (II) nitrate a solid was produced, but also the color was a dark orange-yellow that was not too cloudy. This description is basically the same as the description of the product of sodium iodide added to copper (II) nitrate which was â€Å"dark yellow/range tone, copper color, slightly cloudy†. A solid was formed in both situations because it was slightly cloudy in both situations. Cu(NO3)2 (aq)+2NaI(aq) –> CuI2(s)+2NaNO3(aq) According to the back of the periodic table it states that if the anion iodine is part of the compound then cations like Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+, and Cu+ will form a solid with it. Therefore, since copper is listed as one of the cations that iodine forms a solid with, a solid would be formed which is exactly what happened when sodium iodide was added to copper (II) nitrate. Since sodium iodide in combination with copper (II) nitrate was the only combination to form a dark yellow/orange color of all 4 anions in combination with the cation copper (II) nitrate sodium iodide seems the only option for the unknown. It is also not probable that the unknown is copper (II) nitrate because if there is a precipitate and a color change, it would not be the same color because different formulas yield different reactions like the colors formed. They are all unique.

Electronic civil disobedience Essay

Civil disobedience has been a large part of societies and the past generations that have existed. With the further dawning of the information technology era, civil disobedience has taken another form—electronic civil disobedience (ECD). Though ECD takes a rather non-violent means in advancing the interests of certain groups and positing challenges to the status quo of several institutions, ECD has nevertheless remained a crucial force in shaping the image of mankind in general and will remain to be a contributing element in the coming years—and beyond. A look into electronic civil disobedience: comparisons and analyses In contrast to computer criminality, electronic civil disobedience is a means merely designed to â€Å"attack the institutions† whereas the former is more inclined to obtain profit from â€Å"actions that damage an individual†. This standing distinction contests the probable argument that there is no solid, or at least an ideal difference between the two and that both are the same means in putting down the strength of an institution or of an individual. However, while computer criminality is, by the name itself, a crime punishable by existing and applicable laws under the jurisdiction of certain states, resistance via electronic means—the most common of which is through cyberspace—is deemed to be a means to challenge the existing authority, for instance, in pushing forth necessary changes that are being sought after by individuals. This measure is, apparently, still within the borders of the law and are, hence, legal. Electronic civil disobedience (ECD) is oftentimes carried out in a manner that is not violent or, at the very least, in ways that do not involve direct physical contact (â€Å"Electronic Civil Disobedience†). Although there can be indirect physical consequences that can be attributed to the means and ends that are involved with ECD, a large bulk of the essence of ECD rests on its forefront—resistance through the maximum utility of the intangible resources available. These resources are largely comprised of electronic information and invisible systems in cyberspace that do not require physical contact among the individuals that seek to advance their interests in the face of another individual or an existing authority. Though by and large much of the past generations—and even a considerable number of the present generation of citizens—have been closely attached to the physical means of civil disobedience such as in the literal sense of â€Å"taking-up the streets†, a shift in the manifestation of civil disobedience is greatly felt in the electronic realm. Since information technology’s presence has increasingly grown over the past few decades and since its developments have been continuous and have been exponential in refinement, the impacts of electronic civil disobedience has also risen in levels proportional to the booming of the information technology industry. As recent developments in the field of cyberspace expand abruptly, so are the probable means in which ECD can make itself successful in achieving it’s goals or, at least, in making its presence and mission felt across territorial boundaries of states (Cleaver). Moreover, this growth in information technology (IT) has also started to break down the physical barriers as well as the invisible fences that hold back attempts at pushing forth civil resistance or disobedience. The physical institutions that seek to eradicate or lessen the probability of occurrence of these civil resistances have slowly diminished its grip on its capability to harness barriers and put up defensive mechanisms that strain the success of resistance from citizens. At the height of the development communication tools, effective communication has spread like wildfire from among various areas in the globe. Cellular phone technology has amassed for the people easier means to effectively transmit messages across wide distances, thereby instituting a smoother flow of information relay. Group organization and mobilization is held at a unifying pace that easily penetrates the state borders and geographical barriers. This leads us to the notion that the as the advent of electronic communication—the internet and cellular phone technology to name a few—the expected rise in the efficiency and effectiveness of group mobilization and organization in the face of electronic civil disobedience is within reach. However, the abuse of ECD as in the case of civil disobedience (CD) is always a possibility to the extent that legal measures have also to be taken by the proper authorities so as to dismantle probable grounds for violent and unlawful measures in furthering the interests of several groups. ECD, for the most part, can be a ploy utilized by extreme groups that do not only seek refuge in the non-violent methods encapsulated within the essence of ECD but also seek unlawful ends through violent actions that spring forth from the devices and advantages brought up by the electronic media. Terrorists, for example, can opt to start their large scale plans of wreaking havoc in a populated society by getting a good hold of the electronic resources available almost everywhere. The September bombings of the World Trade Center in New York has devastated a number of lives and even up to this day the damage done can still be felt not only by those who were directly affected but also by the millions of people who fear the havoc of terrorism, especially in contemporary times where ECD is not something new. It would be interesting to note on the delimiting strands that segregate those that are purely in the form of ECD and those that hid behind layers of terrorist ploys. For the most part, ECD remains today as a growing tool used as a means in contesting the status quo by oppositional forces. This brings us to the security issues posited by the ECD that confront the targeted institutions by modern-day activists. Although security measures have been reinforced throughout the years with the further advancement in technology, cyberspace remains an open territory for civil activism—and hackers. Though there may be inconclusive findings that seek to establish a connection or an alliance between hackers and ECD groups, there remains the possibility that an actual connivance may actually exist, only that the alliance is hidden beneath the rubrics of the intangible world of technology. It may be an extreme thought to dwell on such a possibility. Nevertheless one cannot entirely dismiss its factual occurrence. In the context of the general population that subscribes to the established groups that further ECD, certain identifying marks have to be made so as to pinpoint the possibility of having a hacker among the number of activists that attempt at penetrating the electronic defense mechanisms of institutions. However, the rapid growth of the electronic resources and its availability prove to be one hefty factor to surmount by the institutions. Activism is all the more fueled by this growth and, thus, the efforts of the institutions are to be doubled or thickened accordingly if ECD is to be diminished. Quite on the other hand, ECD may not be diminished at all, nor can it be totally dissolved especially when the generation we have of today is one that is teeming with the abundance of electronic wealth (Wehling). It must be further realized that such an (ever increasing) abundance in the electronic resources found in cyberspace provides a fertile starting point for extreme organizations that might utilize ECD as an initial step towards electronic violence and as a front for the extensive damage that can be instigated through system crashes and data hostages. The person adept at information technology and electronic systems will readily convey that the probable damage of system crashes as well as data hostages are devastating in the sense that they do not only shaken the virtual foundations of institutions but also destroy the intangible interior foundations that build the electronic core of the institutions. Reparations may be met, though, but the time to successfully recover or at least partially get back on track is yet another factor that must be considered. Hence, security measures are as equally significant as the protection of the interests of these institutions, if not even far more important. Conclusion The impacts of ECD have been felt in many ways. As the growth in cyberspace continues to expand and exceed the standards set forth by previous generations in their attempt to resist the institutional forces and further the specific aims for taking up civil disobedience, ECD continues to be a driving force in directing the path of the electronic world. The presence of ECD in contemporary times will eventually stretch through time for as long as there remains a continued expansion in the domain of cyberspace and for as long as the interests of people are not met and properly addressed.

Admissions Guide - Admissions Guide to Private Schools

Admissions Guide - Admissions Guide to Private Schools If youre applying to private school, you might be wondering if you have all the important information and know all the steps that you need to take. Well, this admissions guide offers some important tips and reminders to help you apply to private school. However, its important to note that even this guide isnt a guarantee for admission to the school to your choice; there are no tricks or secrets to getting your child into a private school. Just a lot of steps and the art of finding the school that meets your needs and where your child will succeed most. Start Your Search Early   It doesnt matter whether you are trying to find a place in kindergarten,  ninth grade in a college prep school or even a postgraduate year at a boarding school, its important that you start the process a year to 18 months or more in advance. While this isnt recommended because it truly takes that long to apply, but there are a number of things to consider before you even sit down to complete the application. And, if your goal is to get admittance at some of the best private schools in the country, you need to make sure that you are ready and have a strong background.   Plan Your Private School Search From the moment you ask yourself how you get your child into private school until the much-awaited acceptance letter arrives, there is a lot that you need  to do. Plan your work and work your plan. A great tool is the Private School Spreadsheet, which is designed to help you keep track of the schools youre interested in, who you need to contact at each school, and the status of your interview and application. Once you have your spreadsheet ready to use and you begin the process, you can use this  timeline  to stay on track with dates and deadlines. Keep in mind though, that every schools deadlines may vary slightly, so make sure youre aware of all the different deadlines. Decide if Youre Using a Consultant While most families are able to navigate the private school search themselves, some opt to engage the assistance of an educational consultant. Its important that you find a reputable one, and the best place to determine that is by referencing the IECA website. If you decide to contract with one, make sure that you communicate regularly with your consultant. Your consultant can advise you on ensuring that you choose the right fit school for your child, and can work with you to apply to both reach schools and  safe schools. Visits and Interviews Visiting schools is critical. You have to see the schools, get a feel for them and make sure they meet your requirements. Part of the visit will be the admissions interview. While the admissions staff will want to interview your child, they may also want to meet with you. Remember: the school does not have to accept your child. So put your best foot forward. Take some time to prepare a list of questions to ask, too, because the interview is also an opportunity for you to assess if the school is right for your child.    Testing Standardized admissions tests are required by most schools. The SSAT and ISEE are the most common tests. Prepare for these thoroughly. Make sure your child gets lots of practice. Make sure she understands the test, and how it works. Your child will also have to submit a writing sample or essay. Want a great SSAT prep tool? Check out this Guide to the SSAT ebook.   Applications Pay attention to the applications deadlines which are typically mid-January, though some schools have rolling admissions with no specific deadlines. Most applications are for an entire school year though from time to time a school will accept an applicant in the middle of an academic year.    Many schools have online applications. Several schools have a common application which saves you lots of time as you only complete one application which is sent to several schools you designate. Dont forget to complete your Parents Financial Statement(PFS) and submit it as well. Part of the applications process is getting teacher references completed and submitted, so make sure to give your teachers plenty of time to complete those. You will also have to complete a Parent Statement or Questionnaire. Your child will have his own Candidate Statement to fill out as well. Give yourself plenty of time to get these tasks done. Acceptances Acceptances are generally sent in mid-March. If your child is wait-listed, dont panic. A place might just open up. Article edited by  Stacy Jagodowski:  If you have more questions or need more information about getting into a private school, tweet me or share your comment on Facebook.

All About Chinese Wedding Flowers

All About Chinese Wedding Flowers Chinese wedding flowers are used mostly as a decoration on tables at Chinese weddings and large bouquets of colorful flowers (typically pink and red) are often given to the bride and groom as gifts. These elaborate bouquets usually line the hall leading to the wedding reception. Some brides opt to carry a small bouquet though this is usually just for wedding photos. Lilies are popular Chinese wedding flowers because the word lily (ç™ ¾Ã¥ Ë†, bÇŽi hà ©) sounds like the ç™ ¾Ã¥ Ë† ( bÇŽi hà ©) part of the proverb ç™ ¾Ã¥ ¹ ´Ã¥ ¥ ½Ã¥ Ë† (BÇŽinin hÇŽo hà ©, happy union for one hundred years). The flower also represents bringer of sons. Orchids are another popular Chinese wedding flower. Orchids symbolize love and a married couple. Orchids also represent wealth and fortune. The lotus is also a popular Chinese wedding flower. A lotus bloom with a leaf and bud symbolizes a complete union. Two lotus blooms or a lotus and a blossom on one stem represent a wish for shared heart and harmony because è  · (hà ©) means union.

Organizations environment analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organizations environment analysis - Essay Example Environmental analysis plays an important role in formulating the business strategies, marketing plans etc. Its significance increases even more when the external business environment undergoes frequent changes. In the past few years dynamic changes in the political, social, economic and technological environment has been observed while on the other hand these have subsequently impacted the task factors of an organization’s environment such as suppliers, customers, competitors, regulators etc. Furthermore, if an organization fails to monitor its environmental changes then it expected to be pulled out of the business. The environmental analysis made in the paper will enable managers to evaluate any future business strategy. As discussed above that Bubble is a small business located in San Marcos. The organization offers special Asians fruit fused drinks along with bobas (Boba Tea San Marcos, 2014). The internal business environment of Bubble Tea constitutes of manufacturing, accounting, information systems, sales and marketing, research and development, finance and human resource department (Talloo, 2007). All of these areas are under the direct control of the management whereas these are the crucial areas which make a business successful or failure. As per customer reviews Bubble Tea has been efficiently managing its internal environmental factors while satisfying its customers’ needs. The most important step in the analysis of environmental factors is to define the general and task factors. Following is a brief description about different aspects of an environment which currently influences the business operations of Bubble Tea. Economic: Business cycles are largely influenced by the economic growth and development. Bubble Tea’s business activities are primarily impacted by interest rates, economic competition, powers of supply and demand, disposable income and unemployment. Socio-Cultural: Social

Semiconductor devices and circuits Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Semiconductor devices and circuits - Coursework Example Each atom after sharing electrons will attain a full outer shell. Conductors: Conductor materials have large number of free electrons and thus conduct easily. Examples of a good conductor are copper and aluminum and they have, at room temperature, many electrons for conduction. Insulators These are materials which do not conduct. For insulators, there is a very large gap between the two bands i.e. conduction and valence bands. Insulators can only conduct at extremely high temperatures or when they are subjected to very high voltage. Examples of insulators are, wood, glass, paper and mica. Semiconductors: These materials are between conductors and insulators. They are neither conductors nor insulators. They can easily conduct at room temperatures. Examples of these materials are silicon and germanium. Intrinsic semiconductors: These are pure semiconductors since the content of impurity is minimal. These materials are cautiously refined to achieve this form of purity. When intrinsic se miconductors are subjected to room temperature, valence electrons absorb heat energy breaking the covalent bond and move to conduction band. Electrons and holes conduction In intrinsic semiconductors, holes and free electrons are the major charge carriers. Holes and electrons which are generated at room temperatures move in a random motion and can’t conduct any current. ... This allows electric current to flow as a result of electrons movement in the conduction band. The motion of holes in semiconductors is opposite to that of electron. As a result of electrons escape from valence band to conduction band, holes are created in the valence band. When current is applied the electron break and moves to feel the holes present, at the same time this electron leaves another hole and this process continues. The movement of these holes in the valence band leads to current flow referred to as whole current. Extrinsic Semiconductors Small amounts of other materials are added to intrinsic semiconductor to alter the properties and this result to extrinsic semiconductor. This is process of adding an impurity to improve the conductivity of the semiconductor is referred to as doping. The materials used as impurities are called dopant. These semiconductors are the most widely used in practice since they have better conductivity compared to intrinsic semiconductors and a re used in manufacture of electronics components such as transistors and diodes. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors and each depending on the type of impurity used. They are n-type and p-type. N- Type Atoms with five electrons in their outer most shell are referred to as pentavalent atoms. When these pentavalent atoms are used to dope intrinsic semiconductors, they donate a free electron to the semiconductor and they are called donor dopers. Examples of donor materials are phosphorous, arsenic and bismuth. The resulting semiconductor has a large quantity of free electrons and is called n-type semiconductor. Example of n-type semiconductor formation is when arsenic atom with five electrons on the outermost shell combines with silicon with four

Global Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Economics - Essay Example The recent fascination appears to have been inspired by their success in dealing with hyperinflation in several countries such as Argentina and Bulgaria. Argentina did in fact abandon its currency board sometimes back in 2002 after it experienced one of it's worst recession. Lithuania and Estonia also turned to currency boards to obtain credibility for their newly established countries. The renewed appetite for fixed exchange rate regime justifies a closer look at ideal conditions for their establishment, with particular interest to the Argentina's experience. A currency board combines three aspects; one, the exchange rate is fixed to an anchor currency. Secondly, there must be automatic convertibility- it should be always possible to exchange local currency at the fixed rate and thirdly, there should be a long term dedication to this system. The fixed exchange regime that that currency board imports is usually appropriate for small economies with fragile central banks. The fixed exchange rate regime will only be effective if there are sufficient foreign exchange reserves to cover the local current issued. A fixed exchange rate system will be of no use if a country is unable to maintain a sustainable exchange rate to the anchor currency. This might cause serious balance of payment problems if the local currency is overvalued. Argentina paid scant respect for these economic principles that precipitated its financial crisis of 2002. The peso was locked at one US dollar since 1991, when then the currency board was established. Because of this overvaluation, Argentina exported too little and imported too much. The manufactured balance of payment problems rendered it difficult for the country to earn the foreign exchange it needed to repay its foreign debts. Usually, currency boards have the capacity to instill confidence in the public and financial markets because of the certainty of payment adjustment mechanism. However, experiences with Argentina and Hong Kong shows that currency board are not immune to speculative tendencies induced by fear of devaluation. Devaluation did actually take place in Argentina in 2002. Though this was meant to help resolve the countries balance of payment problems, it rendered many businessmen who had borrowed in foreign currency bankrupt. It is also essential for the fiscal policy of a country to be disciplined by the establishment of a currency board and this requires political will from the establishment. At least initially, Argentina bureaucrats played by the rules of the game. But they were perhaps emboldened and the discipline was lost in the late 90's when Argentina picked where it had left from and proceeded to ruin its economy by running persistent deficits. Argentina Convertibility Plan: Mission Impossible. The convertibility plan got its name from the currency board arrangement that was at the centre of economic program in Argentina. At first, it experienced a measure of success and was credited with the growth and stability experienced there in the first half on the 1990's. The initial success, which saw the growth rates going up to 9 percent in 1994, momentarily made Carlos Menem, the then President, and Domingo Cavallo, the then minister of finance heroes in Argentina. The latter years were far from rosy. It's hard to put a finger at what really went wrong and some things even surprised seasoned economists, like the fact that

Group Dynamics Essay Example for Free

Group Dynamics Essay What is â€Å"group dynamics†? Perhaps it will be most useful to start by looking at the derivation of the word â€Å"dynamics†. It comes from a Greek word meaning force. In careful usage the phrase, â€Å"group dynamics† refers to the forces operating in groups. The investigation of group dynamics, then, consists of a study of these forces: what gives rise to them, what conditions modify them, what consequences they have, etc. The practical application of group dynamics (or the technology of group dynamics) consists of the utilization of knowledge about these forces for the achievement of some purpose. In keeping with this definition, is not particularly novel, nor is it the exclusive property of any person or institution. It goes back at least to the outstanding work of men like Simmel, Freud, and Cooley. Although interest in groups has a long and respectable history, the past fifteen years have witnessed a new flowering of activity in this field. Today, research centers in several countries are carrying out substantial programmes of research designed to reveal the nature of groups and of their functioning. The phrase â€Å"group dynamics† had come into common usage during this time and intense efforts have been devoted to the development of the field, both as a branch of social science and as a form of social technology. In this development the name of Kurt Lewin had been outstanding. As a consequence of his work in the field of individual psychology and from his analysis of the nature of pressing problems of the contemporary world, Lewin became convinced of society’s urgent need for a scientific approach to the understanding of the dynamics of groups. In 1945 he established the Research Center for Group Dynamics to meet this need. Since that date the Centre has been devoting its efforts to improving our scientific understanding of groups through laboratory experimentation, field studies, and the use of techniques of action research. It has also attempted in various ways to help get the findings of social science more widely used by social management. Much of what I have to say in this paper is drawn from the experiences of this Center in its brief existence of a little more than five years. We hear all around us today the assertion that the problems of the twentieth century are problems of human relations. The survival of civilization, it is said, will depend upon man’s ability to create social interventions capable of harnessing, for society’s constructive use, the vast physical energies now at man’s disposal. Or, to put the matter more simply, we must learn how to change the way in which people behave toward one another. In broad outline, the specifications for a good society are clear, but a serious technical problem remains: How can we change people so that they neither restrict the freedom nor limit the potentialities for growth of others; so that they accept and respect people of different religion, nationality, colour, or political opinion; so that nations can exist in a world without war, and s that the fruits of our technological advances can bring economic well-being and freedom from disease to all people of the world? Although few people would disagree with these objectives when stated abstractly, when we become more specific, differences of opinion quickly arise. These questions permit no ready answers. How is change to be produced? Who is to do it? Who is to be changed? Before we consider in detail these questions of social technology, let us clear away some semantic obstacles. The word â€Å"change† produces emotional reactions. It is not a neutral word. To many people it is threatening. It conjures up visions of a revolutionary, a dissatisfied idealist, a trouble-maker, a malcontent. Nicer words referring to the process of changing people are education, training, orientation, guidance, indoctrination, therapy. We are more ready to have others â€Å"educate† us than have them â€Å"change† us. We, ourselves feel less guilty in â€Å"training† others than in â€Å"changing† them. Why this emotional response? What makes the two kinds of words have such different meanings? I believe that a large part of the difference lies in the fact that the safer words (like education and therapy) carry implicit assurance that the only changes produced will be good ones, acceptable within a currently held value system. The cold, unmodified word â€Å"change†, on the contrary, promises no respect for values; it might even tamper with values themselves. perhaps for this very reason it will foster straight thinking if we use the word â€Å"change† and thus force ourselves to struggle directly and self-consciously with the problems of value that are involved. Words like education, training, or therapy, by the very fact that they are not so disturbing, may close our eyes to the fact that they too inevitably involve values. How can we change people so that they neither restrict the freedom nor limit the potentialities for growth of others; so that they accept and respect people of different religion, nationality, colour, or political opinion; so that nations can exist in a world without war, and so that the fruits of our technological advances can bring economic wellbeing and freedom from disease to all people of the world? The proposal that social technology may be employed to solve the problems of society suggests that social science may be applied in ways not different from those used in the physical sciences. Does social science, in fact, have any practically useful knowledge which may be brought to bear significantly on society’s most urgent problems? What scientifically based principles are there for guiding programmes of social change: In this paper we shall restrict our considerations to certain parts of a relatively new branch of social science known as â€Å"group dynamics†. We shall examine some of the implications for social action which stem from research in this field of scientific investigation. Consider first some matters having to do with the mental health of an individual. We can all agree, I believe, that an important mark of a healthy personality is that the individual’s self-esteem has not been undermined. But on what does self-esteem depend? From research on this problem we have discovered that, among other things, repeated experiences of failure or traumatic failures on matters of central importance serve to undermine one’s self-esteem. We also know that whether a person experiences success or failure as a result of some undertaking depends upon the level of aspiration which he has set for himself. Now, if we try to discover how the level of aspiration gets set, we are immediately involved in the person’s relationships to groups. The groups to which he belongs set standards for his behaviour which he must accept if he is to remain in the group. If his capacities do not allow him to reach these standards, he experiences failure, he withdraws or is rejected by the group and his self-esteem suffers a shock. Consider a second example. A teacher finds that in her class she has a number of trouble-makers, full of aggression. She wants to know why these children are so aggressive and what can be done about it. A foreman in a factory has the same kind of problem with some of his workers. He wants the same kind of help. The solution most tempting to both the teacher and the foreman often is to transfer the worst trouble-makers to someone else, or if facilities are available, to refer them for counselling. But is the problem really of such a nature that it can be solved by removing the trouble-maker from the situation or by working on his individual motivations and emotional life? What leads does research give us? The evidence indicates, of course, that there are many causes of aggressiveness in people, but one aspect of the problem has become increasingly clear in recent years. If we observe carefully the amount of aggressive behaviour and the number of trouble-makers to be found in a large collection of groups, we find that these characteristics can vary tremendously from group to group even when the different groups are composed essentially of the same kinds of people. In the now classic experiments of Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) on the effects of different styles of leadership, it was found that the same group of children displayed markedly different levels of aggressive behaviour when under different styles of leadership. Moreover, when individual children were transferred from one group to another, their levels of aggressiveness shifted to conform to the atmosphere of the new group. Efforts to account for one child’s aggressiveness under one style of leadership merely in terms of his personality traits could hardly succeed under these conditions. This is not to say that a person’s behaviour is entirely to be accounted for by the atmosphere and structure of the immediate group, but it is remarkable to what an extent a strong, cohesive group can control aspects of a member’s behaviour traditionally thought to be expressive of enduring personality traits. Recognition of this fact rephrases the problem of how to change such behaviour. It directs us to a study of the sources of the influence of the group on its members. Within very recent years some research data have been accumulating which may give us a clue to the solution of our problem. In one series of experiments directed by Lewin, it was found that a method of group decision, in which the group as a whole made a decision to have its members change their behaviour, was from two to ten times more effective in producing actual change as was a lecture presenting exhortation to change (Lewin, 1951). We have yet to learn precisely what produces these differences of effectiveness, but it is clear that by introducing group forces into the situation a whole new level of influence has been achieved. The experience has been essentially the same when people have attempted to increase the productivity of individuals in work settings. Traditional conceptions of how to increase the output of workers have stressed the individual: * Select the right man for the job * Simplify the job for him * Train him in the skills required * Motivate him by economic incentives * Make it clear to whom he reports * Keep the lines of authority and responsibility simple and straight. But even when all of these conditions are fully met we find that productivity is far below full potential. There is even good reason to conclude that this individualistic conception of the determinants of productivity actually fosters negative consequences. The individual, now isolated and subjected to the demands of the organization through the commands of his boss, finds that he must create with his fellow employees informal groups, not shown on any table of organization, in order to protect himself from arbitrary control of his life, from the boredom produced by the endless repetition of mechanically sanitary and routine operations, and from the impoverishment of his emotional and social life brought about by the frustration of his basic needs for social interaction, participation, and acceptance in a stable group. Recent experiments have demonstrated clearly that the productivity of work groups can be greatly increased by methods of work organization and supervision which give more responsibility to work groups, which allow for fuller participation in important decisions, and which make stable groups the firm basis for support of the individual’s social needs (Coch French, 1948). It is points out future research will also demonstrate that people working under such conditions become more mature and creative individuals in their homes, in community life, and as citizens. A few years ago the Research Center for Group Dynamics undertook to shed light on this problem by investigating the operation of a workshop for training leaders in intercultural relations (Lippitt, 1949). In a project, directed by Lippitt, they set out to compare systemically the different effects of the workshop upon trainees who came as isolated individuals in contrast to those who came as teams. Six months after the workshop, however, those who had been trained as isolates were only slightly more active than before the workshop whereas those who had been members of strong training teams were now much more active. They do not have clear evidence on the point, but they are quite certain that the maintenance of heightened activity over a long period of time would also be much better for members of teams. For the isolates the effect of the workshop had the characteristic of a â€Å"shot in the arm† while for the team member it produced a more enduring change because the team provided continuous support and reinforcement for its members. What conclusions may we draw from these examples? What principles of achieving change in people can we see emerging? To begin with the most general position, we may state that the behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, and values of the individual are all firmly grounded in the groups to which he belongs. How aggressive or cooperative a person is, how much self-respect and self-confidence he has, how energetic and productive his work is, what he aspires to, what he believes to be true and good, whom he loves or hates, and what beliefs and prejudices he holds—all these characteristics are highly determined by the individual’s group memberships. In a real sense, they are properties of groups and of the relationships between people. Whether they change or resist change will, therefore, be greatly influenced by the nature of these groups. Attempts to change them must be concerned with the dynamics of groups. In examining more specifically how groups enter into the process of change, we find it useful to view groups in at least three different ways. In the first view, the group is seen as a source of influence over its members. Efforts to change behaviour can be supported or blocked by pressures on members stemming from the group. To make constructive use of these pressures the group must be used as a medium of change. In the second view, the group itself becomes the target of change. To change the behaviour of individuals it may be necessary to change the standards of the group, its style of leadership, its emotional atmosphere, or its stratification into cliques and hierarchies. Even though the goal may be to change the behaviour of individuals, the target of change becomes the group. In the third view, it is recognized that many changes of behaviour can be brought about only by the organization efforts of groups as agents of change. A committee to combat intolerance, a labour union, and employers association, a citizens group to increase the pay of teachers—any action group will be more or less effective depending upon the way it is organized, the satisfactions it provides to its members, the degree to which its goals are clear, and a host of other properties of the group.